+VLFBERHT: name? Brand? Invocation?

[Jim McDougall]

It is remarkable that our forum VIKINGSWORD seldom ever gets topics relating to these weapons, though our administrator was a key figure in the publication of one of the most valuable recent references on these.
"Swords of the Viking Age" (Oakeshott & Pierce & Jones, 2002).

For me, this area is most daunting, with my meager understanding of metallurgy and the complexities of these early medieval histories, and I have been trying for some time to get a basic image of the Viking Age 8th-11th centuries AD. While these swords were produced in Frankish regions (now Germany) it seems they were provided to the Norse and Scandinavian regions to most of the Vikings. Not all of these swords were 'Viking' but they were of the 'Viking Age', as always parameters in these aspects seldom clearly defined.

With my interests in blade markings, one of the most perplexing has been the legendary case of the +Ulfberht marked blades on many of these swords.
There have been varying numbers of examples bearing this marking, as many as 170+ of the several thousand swords of these times. Of these, it seems the number verifiably authentic to determined standard is more to around 40 or more.

What is unique about the Ulfberth blades is not only obviously the mysterious inlaid metal name, but that the strength and character of these blades is phenomenal, with carbon content many times over that of blades made elsewhere in these times. While the ore used to produce the bloomery steel commonly used in other blades was the basis, it seems that the Franks devised a method of secondary smelting in the crucible manner, thus providing the extra time to reach temperatures needed for adequate carbon absorbing. Some suggestions have been that ingots of wootz from the Middle East were the source, as there was strong trade between these regions, but it is more likely they devised an understanding of the crucible methods.

The reason I have attempted to address this is to explain why only an apparent select portion of the otherwise massive numbers of blades produced bear the Ulfberht inlay. I would mention here that there were other, such as INGELRII (later), and the word HILTIPRECHT occurs on the hilts of some swords.

In variation, the Ulfberht seems to have what appears an early version with the cross preceding +ULFBERTH............while later it becomes +VLFBERH+T
why a second cross, and separating the H from the rest?

Often on the reverse of the blade, also pattern welded inlay of geometric figures, and vertical lines occur.

In one noted case, +INGEFLRII+ occurs as well as +VLFBERH+T and the geometrics which include a Jerusalem cross and Greek omegas. It seems this later corresponds with the Christian INNO DOMINE variations.

[Jim McDougall]

The exact nature of the Ulfberht word has been a matter of notable consternation for probably as long as these blades have been known. Naturally the 'occams razor' solution would be it was an esteemed bladesmith in the Frankish regions.

The cross that precedes the 'name' of course suggests the Christian cross, which as well known often became well known on blades in various contexts of later periods.
It seems that in these early times, the Church was in effect the source (armory) for the warfare and weaponry, and often individuals earned their keep as workers, smiths etc. The bishops and abbots of the abbeys were of course the quartermasters for weapons, and just as they typically affixed the CROSS to their names on signed documents, this convention applied to markings on sword blades.
Rather than religious connotation, it was more of a symbol of ecclesiastical or monastic authority.

This leads to the suggestion often posed, that ULFBERTH was perhaps an overlord or controlling figure in the shop(s) producing these unique blades.

While this is tempting, the fact that these blades appear to have been produced for centuries!
So this of course goes to the later phenomenon of later times with the use of renowned bladesmiths in Toledo of the 16th century, whose names and markings were used spuriously (interestingly in Germany) for over a century later than their life.

Of these, most intriguing is ANDREA FERARA, actually a smith in Belluno, Italy of 16th century, whose name became literally a trademark on German blades made destined for Scotland. To the Scots, while indeed a personal name....it had key meaning toward quality..
ANDREA lent well to 'Andrew' the patron saint of Scotland =strong, true
FERARA= obviously Lat. for iron
Thus an eponym for strong steel.

Similarly, in Germany, the word EISENHAUER on blades, was taken to be a makers name, however , EISEN= iron, HAUER= cutter

Returning to the Ulfberht blades:

"...the name of the sword sayd the lady, is Excalibur, that is as muche to say, it cuts stele"
Sir Thomas Mallory, "Le Morte d' Arthur"
1485

This seems to derive from earlier Latin chronicle c. 1136 by Geoffrey of Monmouth, "Historia Regum Britanniae", where the sword of King Arthur is Latinized as 'CALIBURNUS'...alluding to Greek word 'chalyps' =steel.
Other linguistic suggestions, the Breton word caledfwich, from Welsh works 10-12th c. with the term collectively used for swords.
caled = hard; fwich, bwich_= cleft, breach

So could ULFBERHT be toward a quality or brand type association.......?

The 'name' ulfberht apparently became a well known surname in these regions, with etymology ULF=wolf; BERHT= bright, shining.

These terms come from Norse and Old Saxon. In Norway, King Haakon represented himself as a wolf, just as fearsome warriors (berserks) idealized the wolf in Skaldic poems . Did this symbolism extend to such invocation to the sword, imbuing the power and strength of the fearsome wolf (warrior)?
Could the ULF metaphor have carried further in the lore of these regions from the ULFBERHT blades as named....to the graphic symbol of the Passau wolf? used in this migratory town on the Danube known for its assemblage of mercenary warriors in later times?

[urbanspaceman]

Celts around the North Sea claimed they learned the science of 'Billet Forging' from "The Hidden One": an underworld god.
Noted linguist Kim McCone, who has specialised in Celtic language, notes that the title Celt- is found in the names of several ancient Gauls, such as Celtillus: father of Vercingetorix. He also suggests it meant the people or descendants of "the hidden one", further noting that according to Julius Caesar's Bellum Gallicum (Gallic War), the Gauls claimed descent from an underworld god.
Their skills migrated south, and as early as c.500bCe they were producing superior blades on the Iberian Peninsular using 'Billet Welding'. The Romans gained awareness of it during the Punic Wars. It appears this science later migrated to Britain during the Viking raids and settlements, and continued to be used there until the arrival of the Normans.
Bamburgh Castle holds just such a blade, made locally of multiple strands of billet welded metal dating to c.600Ce and found in the castle grounds. (I know nothing of the blade steel from the period following the Norman occupation of Britain, and I would dearly like to be disabused.)
Jim! the influence of Christianity amongst the Vikings came later, thanks to the scarce enduring brethren here. For many years, what had been a thriving and renowned Christian culture here in Northern England, was mercilessly wiped out without a second thought. The first signs of Christian influence here was when the Vikings were persuaded not to slaughter the children. Consequently, I don't think you can ascribe Christianity to any markings on Viking blades, unless anyone knows otherwise.
nb
Looking at the date of 500bCe for the arrival of billet forging here in Northern Europe, I often wonder how curious it is that at almost exactly the same time Wootz was appearing in Sri Lanka.
Of course, the influence of Deities over there dates back a lot further again.

[Jim McDougall]

Thanks Keith!
What I meant was that the cross on the ULFBERHT word on the blades had NOTHING to do with Christianity in the religious sense. It was entirely a symbolic gesture much in the manner of runes as far as the Vikings perceived. In fact many of the curious geometric etc markings on reverse of many of these blades seem to have derived from Glagolitic and runic symbols.

While the Vikings were not Christianized, Latin, the language of the Church was a lingua francia of the times, so the cross symbol itself was not perceived necessarily as religious, but as noted more an administrative element. If seen magically, or as invocation it was part of talismanic convention rather than religious.

These swords marked Ulfberht were used by many Vikings, but again, not all Scandinavians were Vikings.......these swords were Frankish, virtually none ever made in those countries.

thank you for coming in on this! Your intense research on this history and metallurgy are so valuable, and honestly way outside my pay grade!

[corrado26]

Originally Posted by Jim McDougall

Similarly, in Germany, the word EISENHAUER on blades, was taken to be a makers name, however , EISEN= iron, HAUER= cutter

It is true, the name "Eisenhauer" exists in Germany, but also in the USA (Eisenhower). But this word on blades made in Germany is not the name of the manufacturer, but a quality feature. Blades with the Eisenhauer signature can penetrate iron nails without damaging the cutting edge, i.e. there are no notches in the cutting edge after the test.At least this is what I have read on this topic.

[urbanspaceman]

Hi Jim. When it comes to un-resolved markings on blades you are my first port of call and I bow to your encyclopedic knowledge on the subject.
However, I am often bewildered by your detailed responses, so please forgive my questioning your response regarding Christian symbology... I am actually still bewildered - but I haven't had my coffee yet, so I will try again later.

[Lee]

Alan Williams hypothesized that the ULFBERH+T swords may have been made from Asian crucible steel on the basis of high carbon content and microstructure. The popular press then ran with a corruption of that theory - that ULFBERH+T swords were the best - luxury goods of their time - and the other variations were knockoffs.

However, far from being the Viking Super Sword, the +ULFBERH+T inlaid swords were likely from a particular workshop that used higher carbon steel and corrupted the earlier existing +ULFBERHT+ inscription and there may be a metallurgical reason so many are found broken.

For me, Ingo Petri pretty much shot down the Viking super sword concept in 2015 at the Solingen Sword: Form and Thought conference. Here is a more recent paper by him explaining his reasoning: https://www.academia.edu/68589269/VL...nd_manufacture. (The formatting is better if you download the pdf from there.)

[Jim McDougall]

Originally Posted by urbanspaceman

Hi Jim. When it comes to un-resolved markings on blades you are my first port of call and I bow to your encyclopedic knowledge on the subject.
However, I am often bewildered by your detailed responses, so please forgive my questioning your response regarding Christian symbology... I am actually still bewildered - but I haven't had my coffee yet, so I will try again later.

My apologies Keith, my poorly framed comments indeed are worded in a bewildering way. Actually, while of course being well aware of 'Viking' swords, my 'knowledge' on them is pretty much at kindergarten level. I have for many years wanted to learn more on the subject, but quite honestly it is formidable to say the least.

So wanting to have a go at it finally, I have been 'cramming' as it were for weeks to at least get some idea of the kinds of questions I should try to focus on, and what resulted was what you well describe as bewildering dialogue.

I am still studying, going through many sources, but there has been so much debate and consternation on the subject matter, it is hard to establish any well defined resolution.,

What I was trying to say is that the 'cross' seems to have been a mark which indeed had ecclesiastic use with the 'names' and invocations found on these blades of 9th-10th centuries.

Since these blades were virtually all made in Frankish regions (now Germany and Bavaria) it seems well established they traveled into Scandinavian regions through trade and of course many were used by Vikings of these varying regions.

If any of these 'Viking age' swords were made outside the Frankish domain I have certainly not yet come across that exception.

What I was saying is that while Scandinavian regions, particularly Vikings, were not Christianized in these times, the cross appearing on blades, as well as other Christian symbology such as invocations such as IN NOMINE DOMINI , DIC= DOMINUS IESUS CHRISTUS; NED=MOMEN ETERNUM DEI.....
would not preclude Viking use.
These markings rather than seen as religiously oriented would have been seen as markings of high quality.......or further, indicators of ',magic' much in the sense of the futharks of runic alphabets.

I hope this makes any more sense, its getting clearer to me

[Jim McDougall]

Lee, thank you for coming in! and I have been going through your amazing book trying to get a better grasp on this esoterica, and it gets more fascinating every run I have at it!

As we have discussed and you well note, while the theory of the use of the Eastern crucible steel being used for the remarkable blades of the ULFBERHT genre being the source for their strength and soundness...the truth may be closer to home.
It appears that perhaps the Franks realized that the small furnaces used in smelting the bloomery steel used could not produce the heat and time required to absorb adequate carbon. By adding a second step the carbon content was increased.
Obviously this simplification reveals my limited grasp of metallurgy, but what I have read notes that most of the Frankish blades we are discussing have remarkable carbon content, far higher than contemporary blades elsewhere.

The note on the variation in placement of the + in the ULFBERHT inlay on many blades does suggest a different shop, using the renowned name much in the manner of the centuries later ANDREA FERARA mystique, among others. The instances of ME FECIT occurring with other names occurring such as INGELRII does lean toward makers or shops as opposed to suggestions of invocations, which in some degree might have had some bearing.

[Jim McDougall]

Originally Posted by corrado26

It is true, the name "Eisenhauer" exists in Germany, but also in the USA (Eisenhower). But this word on blades made in Germany is not the name of the manufacturer, but a quality feature. Blades with the Eisenhauer signature can penetrate iron nails without damaging the cutting edge, i.e. there are no notches in the cutting edge after the test.At least this is what I have read on this topic.

Thank you Udo, I completely missed the mark in my comment on Eisenhauer.
I should have been more clear, and noted it was a word for iron cutter, and not a makers name as often assumed. Pretty impressive quality, and understandably so.

[Reventlov]

Hi Jim!

Originally Posted by Jim McDougall

The bishops and abbots of the abbeys were of course the quartermasters for weapons, and just as they typically affixed the CROSS to their names on signed documents, this convention applied to markings on sword blades.
Rather than religious connotation, it was more of a symbol of ecclesiastical or monastic authority.

The suggestion that the crosses on Ulfberht swords refer to ecclesiastical rank I think originally comes from Anne Stalsberg. Her work on the Ulfberht group is excellent, but I think this little detail is not well founded. It is quite typical on medieval documents for everyone to sign their name with a cross. Of course, early medieval documents were written by scribes and the concept of a "personal signature" is a modern one. Many people, even of high rank, might be illiterate or semi-literate – able to read but not write. On some documents you can guess from the penmanship that parties drew the sign of the cross themselves – they "made their mark" – and then scribes filled in the text of their name. In other cases, scribes might simply list all the names of witnesses, for example, each preceded with a cross. I attach an example showing at upper right the "signature" of William the Conqueror and his wife and son, as well as the earl of Warenne and other secular notables.



To confirm that "Ulfberht" is indeed a personal name, Stalsberg searched the confraternity books of several Swabian monasteries, which provide a database of many thousands of names. The closest spelling appearing there is "Uuolfberht" (Wolfberht). Spelling in this time was highly variable and inconsistent. Perhaps the precise spelling "Ulf-" was customary in some other region. The confraternity books can be used to compare other names found on early medieval swords. For example, CEROLT which appears on a single example from Russia. This is a documented spelling of a Germanic name which is modernized as "Gerold" (Cerolt/Kerolt/Kerold/etc). On this sword, the name appears unadorned, without any crosses, and like Ulfberht without the phrase me fecit. Nevertheless, it seems most natural to interpret these blade-names as referring to a maker or master responsible for producing the sword.



I think comparing sword inscriptions with epigraphs on other objects is likely the most fruitful approach. I have found Elisabeth Okasha's work on Anglo-Saxon inscriptions useful. Some similar trends can be observed here. Many inscriptions begin with a single cross, particularly but not universally, makers' inscriptions with me fecit. Some swords do follow this template. The identity of the "maker" is always somewhat ambiguous, but scholarly consensus is that it most often refers to the artisan himself. There are cases where it conclusively refers to the commisioner, e.g. an abbot who "made" a new facade for his church. Some artisans, like bellfounders, were typically monks themselves, but maker's inscriptions appear on a wide variety of artifacts whose production was not inherently linked to church authority.



It is interesting that beginning early with VLFBERHT, sword inscriptions mostly follow a standard of two crosses, at beginning and end, which is relatively rare on other kinds of objects (but not unknown, as shown by ring above). I think symmetry may have had a strong appeal in this setting, as evidenced by the number of palindromes that later appear on sword blades, the best-known being SOS and OSO. The standard geometric design on the reverse of VLFBERHT blades is also a symmetric one, as are many other early inscriptions composed of bars, circles, crosses, and other signs. Symmetry can be recognized by all, literate or otherwise, and could enhance the visual impression of the inscription, which might translate to greater mystical or magical power.

[Jim McDougall]

Reventlov, I am so glad to have you in on this!! and you make many resounding points, especially noting the matter of scribes!!! I had not thought of that, and that is most important about their application of the crosses on documents.
The question of these names/wordings applied to blades by illiterate workmen copying these scribed documents would definitely account for the often seen variation in spellings, wording etc.
Also the well made point about symmetry makes perfect sense. Even in native cultures applying certain symbolism to material culture items, the intent is of course often magic imbuement, so aesthetics having to do with the kinds of balance key to such ethereal values would be important.

At this point, I really am compelled to agree that ULFBERHT was likely a name and as mentioned, wonder if by the character of the meaning of the name etymologically became attractive in the sense of a 'brand' in the manner centuries later with ANDREA FERARA.

While Andrea Ferara was indeed a living individual, his name in literal terms meant good steel effectively, so was readily adapted as a trademark. While obviously there were many master blademakers, their names did not carry that instant impact of direct meaning.

With ULFBERHT, the key word element 'wolf' represented the fierce and legendary 'berserk' warriors, and Vikings were attracted to such totemic similes and wordings as many named their own weapons. I personally have always felt that the ubiquitous 'running wolf of Passau' was a slightly later graphic imbuement carrying similar concept toward warriors.

If you are choosing a powerful sword to wield in battle, what better choice than such magic imbuement in the blade?

Naturally other kinds of imbuement became well known with religious invocations, phrases and mottos, in many cases abbreviated , DIC, NED etc. as you note on palindromes. including many curious acrostics which appear as mysterious jumbled letters, while the warrior ethos remained present in degree though such symbols as the wolf.