[Marc M.]

Hi Jim
I have translated some pages about the Touareg from dutch. An exhibition, Touareg, in 1994 at the Museum of Central Africa , Tervuren, Belgium.

Regards
MarcSocio-political stratification
The traditional Tuareg community was highly hierarchical. Socially
it was divided into different positions or classes (aserkam). Typically,
four socio-political classes were found in the various confederations. At
the top was the group of aristocratic leaders and warriors; at the other
end of the social ladder were the slaves. This was expressed, among other
things, in various degrees of servitude. The distinction was originally based
on descent.
1. The nobles, imuhar [imochar, imajeghen] were livestock breeders and were
mainly engaged in war and raiding activities; also with caravan activities
and trade. They were the holders of political rights and land ownership.
In the spirit of Tuareg tradition, armed plunder and raiding was a venerable
and noble institution. 'The Imouhar are primarily warriors. They owe
their high social status to their sword and have no other occupations other
than war and raids. Their role as feudal lord makes them parasites of
the vassals. In the past they were a plague for the caravans that crossed their
land. They have never had any means of subsistence other than plunder.
A man of good descent, and who wanted to remain so, had to cross
the desert on his camel, plunder and risk his life on distant journeys.' This
representation of Lhote was commonplace a few decades ago. It was a rather
simplistic Western view. The cultural context was more complicated; war
and raids were, at least among the nobles, usually directly related to
honor, one's own or that of the group. It was an inherent part of the political
system, of their social structure and of their value system.
Any form of manual labor was abhorred and passed on to their vassals and
slaves. 'The contempt for manual labor is a prejudice of the Imouhar
class and not a result of laziness, for although they would under no circumstances
cultivate the land, they do not hesitate to travel thousands of kilometers in
often very difficult and dangerous conditions, to cultivate the herds of to
plunder enemy tribes. When they returned to the camp, they wanted to live
a life free of material concerns, which they left to their vassals.'" They were
morally obliged to provide protection and defense to their vassals and to
their other dependents.
2. A second estate was formed by the imrad [limghad singular: amrid], the vassals,
the tributaries or the non-nobles; they were usually involved in livestock
farming. However, they were involved by the Imuhar in their raids and raids; as a
price for their assistance they received part of the booty. Moreover, they were the
shepherds of the Imuhar who gave their livestock (especially the camels) to them
entrusted. In practice, the Imuhar only kept a few mounts that they actually
needed for their milk, their war expeditions and for the transport of their
household goods.
Circumstances often caused shifts: tribes were driven from their ancestral
wandering territories and had to seek the protection of their new
neighbors, thus becoming vassals. Or in some cases they were able to subdue
them through their position of power and then the first landowners
became their vassals. Blood descent was always considered very important:
even vassals who were of high descent continued to be respected because
of that quality.
3. The slaves, iklan (enkv.: akli), were acquired through war and raids or
came from subjugated groups, usually Negro groups in the Sudan. They
were either purchased from Arab caravans or at slave markets that took
place in Sudanese cities. There were 'dune slaves' or cattle herders; and 'tent
slaves', who served their master(s) and his (or her) family in the camp.
Some were liberated even before the beginning of French colonization;
in the south they were all liberated after the Tuares revolt of 1916-17.
Some groups of these Ighawels in Aïr (also known by their Hausa name
Buzu, or their Songhay name Bella) are nomadic pastoralists. Among the
Iwellemmeden, in addition to the Ighawelen, there are also the Iklan n Egef,
who are also herders, and the Iderfan who are sedentary farmers. In
Ahaggar the freed slaves are the so-called Izeggaghen (senkv. Azeggagh) or,
as they are called by Arabophones, Harratin (senkv. Hartani), farmers.
This name also includes the descendants of the black sedentary farmers
who emigrated from Tidikelt and Touat in the mid-19th century and
who came to create and cultivate the mountain gardens in the Ahaggar on
behalf of the Tuareg.
4. The craftsmen caste, eneden [ineden or inadan]) is very important and
consists of blacksmiths. 'They are the blacksmiths that are found in all Tuareg
groups. They form a very important caste as the Tuaregartisanate is very
little developed. The Tuareg get their weapons and many other supplies from
the blacksmith, who also makes silver jewelry for the Tuareg women. Without
the blacksmiths, the material culture of the Tuareg would be poor. The
other castes of blacks are also very dependent on the blacksmiths who make
footwear, sickles and the like. In the two groups of the northern Tuareg
there are very few blacksmiths – only a few families living in agricultural
settlements. Among the southern Tuareg, blacksmiths are very numerous and
many of them lead a pastoral life like the real Tuareg. The origin of the
blacksmith caste is unknown.'¹º Several authors mention traditions that allow the
hypothesis to be linked to Jews, including the numerous Jewish gold and
silversmiths in the Maghreb; but it is a unproven hypothesis.
5. A fifth social class was formed by the Muslim clergy, inislims (photos
42, 69). Especially in Aïr there were marabou tribes who were only
concerned with religious practices and animal husbandry and who carried
no weapons. Several tribes declare themselves to be of Arab origin. The Kel
Adagh and thThe status of the various estates could differ greatly depending on the region.
As for the vassals, for example: among the Kel Adagh and the Iwellemmeds
there were tribes that were made into vassals who were relatively
rich and powerful, were respected and paid only a small tribute in the form of
gifts." In the region of Tombouctou the vassals were ( daga) very poor and
were constantly extorted by the nobles." As for the marabou tribes, in Air
they were rich and honored; among the Kel Adagh and the Iwellemmeden
they wereRazzia's
Among the Tuareg, raiding was an institution that was widespread and
practiced. She responded to precise and well-defined rules and a code
of honor had to be adhered to. A raid was organized by a group of
men, put together for the occasion, in principle on a voluntary basis,
i.e. by all who wanted to participate and there were many. The desire
for new property and heroic deeds were the motives; they were
encouraged to do so by the women. The participants had to take care of their
weapons and their mounts; if necessary they borrowed one and part
of the loot then went to the owner of the riding camel. Sufficient
food and water was taken and left in certain places to get along
faster, but also in view of a possible escape. The camp that was the target
could belong to foreigners or to another Tuareg tribe. The trip
went at a very fast pace, to ensure surprise. In a successful attack, food
reserves, some of the women's clothes and their jewelry were taken; one
team of the attackers was charged with getting the cattle to safety as
quickly as possible. Fighting only took place when the attacked offered
resistance; but not infrequently the men fled. When it came to
Tuareg, the attacking nobles did not touch the women. During raids on
foreign groups – on blacks in the south, for example – men and women
were also kidnapped. Some were kept as personal property and
became tent slaves; others were sold in markets in the north. The attacked could organize a counter-raids, or try to chase the
attackers and cut off their path. When the roundup was 'unlawful' -
i.e.
directed against a group with which there was no disagreement
- a delegation from the rounded up group was often sent to negotiate
restitution. On the other hand, raids were often the beginning of
long-lasting enmity. poor.e Iwellemmeden were very small groups.

The Tuareg have been Islamized. This is manifested, among other things,
by the presence of specific tribes of Muslim priests, the ineslimen.
Several authors have argued that the Tuareg Muslim faith is generally
superficial and relatively recent.3
Some authors attribute a distant Christian past to the Tuareg34, which
is still evident from the use of the cross as a decorative motif. Others
have pointed out the superficial acceptance of the Christian faith
characterized by its rapid spread in late Roman North Africa; and it is
known that the nomadic tribes of that time remained pagan. Here one can
again point out that we do not know whether the distant ancestors of the
current Tuareg were nomads at that time. As for the sign of the cross,
it is a magical practice that consists of placing two pieces of wood
crosswise over each other; this then forms a symbolic shield against evil
influences. 35
As far as Judaism is concerned, it is known that Jews were installed very
early in North Africa, including in Cyrenaica, and that local tribes converted.
By the time of Emperor Justinian they had become so influential that
they were expelled by the Romans. Some settled in the Sahara, including in
Touat. Here they were chased away in 1492 by a Musulman marabou. Some
moved to Oualata. From this the enaden caste is said to have arisen; the six-
pointed star - the 'Star of David' - which appears in wickerwork and on
jewelry, is said to be a remnant of it.36
Among the Tuareg, the belief in spirits that inhabit the mountains, the
springs, the 'gueltas', some rocks or some trees as well as ancient graves
remains alive. Many and various amulets must be worn against this. Faith and religion (photos 69-73 - cat. 28-29)
The Tuareg have been Islamized. This is manifested, among other things,
by the presence of specific tribes of Muslim priests, the ineslimen.
Several authors have argued that the Tuareg Muslim faith is generally
superficial and relatively recent.3
Some authors attribute a distant Christian past to the Tuareg34, which
is still evident from the use of the cross as a decorative motif. Others
have pointed out the superficial acceptance of the Christian faith
characterized by its rapid spread in late Roman North Africa; and it is
known that the nomadic tribes of that time remained pagan. Here one can
again point out that we do not know whether the distant ancestors of the
current Tuareg were nomads at that time. As for the sign of the cross,
it is a magical practice that consists of placing two pieces of wood
crosswise over each other; this then forms a symbolic shield against evil
influences. 35
As far as Judaism is concerned, it is known that Jews were installed very
early in North Africa, including in Cyrenaica, and that local tribes converted.
By the time of Emperor Justinian they had become so influential that
they were expelled by the Romans. Some settled in the Sahara, including in
Touat. Here they were chased away in 1492 by a Musulman marabou. Some
moved to Oualata. From this the enaden caste is said to have arisen; the six-
pointed star - the 'Star of David' - which appears in wickerwork and on
jewelry, is said to be a remnant of it.36
Among the Tuareg, the belief in spirits that inhabit the mountains, the
springs, the 'gueltas', some rocks or some trees as well as ancient graves
remains alive. Many and various amulets must be worn against this.